January 1999
I. Camera Obscura (dark room)
A. Aristotle--basic observation
B. Leonardo de Vinci (1452-1519)--articulated the principle
C. Giambattista Della Porta, Natural Magic, (1558) describes the usefulness of the principle--tracing,
entertainment
II. Film
A. Louis Daguerre and Joseph Nicephore Niepce (1839), France, recorded a positive image on a metal plate; not reproducible
B. William Fox Talbot (1840), England, negative image on paper and later collodion; reproducible
C. Langenheim brothers of Philadelphia (1849) introduced positive paper and transparencies
D. George Eastman (1884) USA, film in flexible rolls; later improvements in film quality
III. Magic Lantern
A. Ancient idea--cavemen probably
B. Asian shadow puppets
C. Athanasius Kircher, The Great Art of Light and Shadows, (1649): Germany, priest and scientist, introduced artificial shapes and images and a lens
D. Fantasmagorie (1790s): Etienne-Gaspard Robertson
IV. Persistence of Vision--the eye retains an image for approximately 1/10th of a second after the image has been perceived
by the eye. Although challenged today, this theory has a long history of belief and has influenced many advances toward
today's cinema.
A. Peter Mark Roget (1824), articulated the theory
B. John Ayrton Paris (1826)--Thaumascope
C. Joseph Plateau (1830's)--Phenakistoscope
D. William Horner (1834)--Zoetrope
E. Eadward Muybridge (1870's)--serial photography
F. Ettienne Jules Marey (1882)--chronophotographic gun
V. Maltese Cross--a device that allowed film to be advanced continually, with regularly measured pauses to facilitate clear
projection
A. Thomas Alva Edison--Kinetoscope
B. W.K.L. Dickson (1888)--Edison's colleague, devised sprocket system to advance film
C. Oskar Messter (1880's)--Maltese Cross
D. Thomas Armat (1896)--Vitascope
E. Greg and Otway Latham (1890's)--the Latham Loop
January 2001
Realism and Expressionism (sometimes called Formalism) are terms used to describe two stylistic tendencies in film. In
the abstract, they can be considered polar extremes, but to do so clouds the nature of each style. In fact, they are not mutually
exclusive; they can and almost always do appear in the same film, often in the same sequences and same shots. In practice,
the terms do not exist at the polar extremities. The thing to remember is that they are stylistic tendencies. Probably no
film ever made was done completely in one style or the other. The aim of users of both styles is to make reality visible.
Realism is a cinematic style that tends to find reality through observation of the actual, physical world.
Manipulation by the filmmaker is kept to a minimum. The realist tries, as far as possible, to preserve our natural
sense of time and space. Realism is essentially an Aristotelian concept: we know the world through close
observation and inference. (Some films that lean toward realism: The Harmonists, Apollo 13, The Ice Storm,
Living in Oblivion, Saving Private Ryan, Clerks, Persuasion, Secrets and Lies, Fargo, Shakespeare in Love.)
Expressionism (or Formalism) is a cinematic style that tends to find reality through the manipulation of the
physical world. Expressionist filmmakers use various cinematic devices to emphasize details that they believe give
the essence of reality. They are more likely than realists to alter our sense of time and space. Expressionism is
essentially a Platonic concept: we know the world by finding the form or essence of reality that underlies the
illusory world we perceive through our senses. (Some films that lean toward expressionism: Deep Blue Sea;
Natural Born Killers; American Beauty; Run Lola Run; Trainspotting; Eyes Wide Shut; Citizen Kane; MI
2; Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon; most cartoons.)
Realism
Long takes (in time)
Cutting for continuity (match cuts mainly)
Moving-camera shots
Long and medium shots
Straight angles
Normal lens (focal length)
Unobtrusive filming
Natural lighting
Location settings
Natural sound
Natural colors
Wide range of black-gray-white
Open form
Sense of spontaneity or accident
Expressionism
Frequent cuts
Cutting for dramatic effect (frequent crosscuts, often jump cuts)
Thematic montage (conceptual cuts, often jump cuts)
Movement through montage
Close ups
Strong angles
Telephoto and wide angle effects
Dynamic effects
Sculptured lighting
Studio settings
Controlled sound (e.g. background music, sound effects)
Intense and symbolic colors
High contrast between black and white
Closed form
Contrived emphases
Keep in mind that a style reflects tendencies, not absolutes. Most films that can be classified as using one style will also use
elements of the other style (or stylistic tendency). The key to differentiating between the styles is the preponderance of the
applications of these elements. Many--perhaps most films today--mix freely elements of mise-en-scene and expressionism.
Living Out Loud is, for example, a film that has a realistic base stylistically but often plunges into expressionistic editing,
movement, and settings. Consider this: one of the landmark films of film realism Jean Renoir's Rules of the Game (1939;
will be shown on Tuesday, May 1, 6-8, in Fenton 105) has a highly expressionistic and very important sequence at the
middle of the film. Citizen Kane, one of the great formalist films, uses many fundamental characteristics of realist
filmmaking.
revised January 1999
Definition: A shot is the image or images the audience sees from what appears to be one uninterrupted exposure of film.
Caution: The terms listed below can be used to describe various images that we see in films. The terms are not mutually
exclusive; a full shot could be a low angle, point of view, telephoto, one-shot and then change, as we watch a tracking shot
develop, to something entirely different without losing its identity as a single shot. [The bracketed page references are to
illustrative images in Giannetti, 8th ed.]
I. Camera-to-Subject distance
A. Long shot (LS) [53, 105, 293, 392] B. Full shot (FS) [22A, 319, 351]
C. Medium shot (MS) [22B, 262, 366, 432A] D. Close up (CU) [5, 70B, 208, 271, 273B]
II. Angles
A. Normal (straight) [most, Color pl. 4, 115, 250] B. Low angle shot [14, 60, 325A , 326, 448]
C. High angle shot [13, 53, 500] D. Aerial shot [307] / Overhead [149, 476 partially]
E. Oblique angle shot (tilt) [16, 139B]
III. Camera movement
A. Fixed base: camera head pivots or swivels
1. panning shot (left/right) 2. tilt shot (vertical pan: up/down)
B. Camera moves through space
1. dolly shot (in/out) 2. tracking shot
3. trucking shot 4. crane or boom shot (up/down)
IV. Manipulation of lenses
A. Normal [most, 15, 54, 67] B. Telephoto [28A, B, and C, 81, 119, 222, 338]
C. Wide-angle [29A & B, 109, 448A] D. Zoom
E. Deep focus [84, 106, 478] F. Shallow focus [115, 126A & B, 227, 240, 400]
G. Soft focus [201, 205, 445] H. Out-of-focus
I. Rack focus J. Underexposed [39B]
K. Overexposed [66] L. Filtered [color plates 1, 9 & 10]
V. Function
A. Establishing shot [20, color plate 16, 114] B. Reverse angle shot
C. Reaction shot [244-5, N & L D. Bridging shot
E. Point of view shot F. Subjective camera shot
VI. Composition
A. Over-the-shoulder shot [62, 400]
B. Profile shot [7, 241]
C. Silhouette shot [43, 442]
D. Frontal shot [208, 225,388]
VII. Speed of Recording
A. Slow motion (overcranked shot) B. Fast motion (undercranked shot) C. Time-lapse
Mise-en-scene (pronounced, roughly, meez-ahn-sen) is the arrangement, movement, and tone of people, objects, and spaces
within the cinematic image. More generally, the term is used to signify the look of a film or the tone suggested by its
atmosphere or environment. Mise-en-scene might be justly called the art of depicting the invisible. Bracketed page numbers
correspond with illustrative images in Giannetti, 8th ed.
I. Composition
A. Placement
1. Weight or visual emphasis (Giannetti's "dominant")
2. Lateral placement (shallow focus/single plane)
A. Symmetrical [416B, 417B, 422, 433A and B]
B. Asymmetrical or non-symmetrical [37, 423, 433]
3. Depth (deep focus): foreground, midground, background
B. Proxemics (spatial relativity within the frame)
1. intimate distance [color pl 2, 70B, 119, 358] 3. social distance [73, 339]
2. personal distance [22, 227, 247] 4. public distance [76C, 480]
C. Lines
1. horizontal 2. vertical 3. diagonal
4. arcs 5. circles 6. triangles
D. Framing
1. aspect ratio (width of screen: height of screen)
2. interior framing
a. depth cues [72, 84, 98, 172] c. masking [261, 287]
b. single plane [63, 370, 384] d. barriers [341B, 483]
3. tight/loose
E. Off-Screen Space: 1. open form [9B] 2. closed form [9A]
II. Imagery
A. Lighting
1. Intensity
a. high key [22B, 44] b. low key [14, 18, 32, 39, 57 A & B] c. fill light
2. Placement
a. frontal c. side [19, 208] e. bottom [209 somewhat]
b. side frontal [most] d. top f. back [21A]
E. Film stock
1. black and white
a. tonal gradation b. graininess
2. color
a. hue--base color
b. saturation--degree of gray tone
c. brightness--reflection of light
III. Indexes
A. Setting
1. Time
a. clock time (day) b. cyclical time (seasons) c. period (historical)
2. Place: interior/exterior
B. Associations or conventions
1. contextual 2. psychological
3. social and cultural 4. moral and ethical
C. Figurative expressions
1. metaphor 3. synecdoche
2. metonymy 4. symbolism
D. Actors
1. icons/types/versatile performers
2. body language/gesture/facial language
3. costume/make up
revised January 2001
I. Definition: Editing in film is the joining together of two or more shots in an ordered sequence.
II. Effect of Editing: Editing alters a viewer's perspective in space and often his/her sense of time.
III. Organization: Shots are edited or arranged into sequences. A sequence is a unified group of shots.
IV. Technical/Physical Transitions
A. Straight cut B. Lap dissolve (dissolve)
C. Fade (in or out) D. Blackout (or whiteout)
E. Dynamic transitions (Wipe/Flipover/Swish pan) F.. Blur
G. Master shot technique
V. Aesthetic/Psychological Transitions (Why filmmakers cut)
A. Match cuts (seamless transitions): usually the contraction of time and/or space
1. rhythmic cut/cut on movement 7. intercut
2. eyeline match 8. metric cut
3. clean exit/clean entrance 9. tonal cut
4. formal cut 10. sound match
5. change distance and angle 11. sequence exit/entrance
6. reaction shot 12. 180-degree line or rule/screen territory
B. Dramatic or psychological effect (fragmentation of images)
1. Crosscut (or parallel cut)
2. Jump cut
3. Overlapping action
4. Flashback (or flashforward)
5. Expansion of time and space
6. creative geography
7. cutaway
C. Thematic or figurative expression/Conceptual cutting
1. symbol 2. metaphor
3. metonymy 4. synecdoche
D. Pace and the content curve
revised January 2001
I. The Primacy of the Visual Image
A. Vertical montage
B. Layering of sound in film; sound tracks
C. Mutual modification of image and sound
II. Modes of Film Sound
A. Diegetic (part of the story; part of the fiction; from an on-screen or off-screen source; part of the world of the film)
B. Non-diegetic (from a source outside the story or narrative; therefore, not visible)
C. Synchronous (usually visibly perceptible)
D. Asynchronous
E. Post production (dubbing, post-synchronization, scoring)
III. Three Basic Kinds of Sound in Film
A. The human voice or speech or language: dialogue/monologue/narration
1. Literal meanings
2. Sub-texts
3. Voice quality
B. Sound effects (which often overlap in their definitions)
1. Natural
2. Environmental
3. Artificial
C. Music
1. Source (virtually always diegetic)
2. Background (usually non-diegetic)
3. Performance (characteristic of traditional musicals)
IV. Qualities of Film Sound
A. Intensity: pitch--high to low
B. Volume--loud to soft
C. Pace or tempo--fast to slow
D. Tone/timbre
E. Texture/degree of complexity
V. Some Cinematic Functions of Sound (these may overlap)
A. Increase the sense of realism
B. Eliminate the need for expository sequences
C. Establish time or place
D. Create a figurative expression/develop a motif
G. Define space
H. Reinforce or modify expectations evoked by visual images
I. Set the tone or mood of the visual images
J. Intensify action/support the visual image/emphasize rhythm and movement
K. Counterpoint the visual image ironically
L. Give meaning to silence
M. Develop characters or provide psychological revelation
N. Serves as a bridge for cuts or sequences (sound matches)